Lebanon's Position on Iraqi Demands on Kuwait 1958-1963
Keywords:
Shared Interests, Policy of Neutrality, Arab Countries, Regional ConflictsAbstract
The common interests between Lebanon and the Arab countries, including Iraq and Kuwait, imposed political and strategic obligations that affected the determination of their positions on Arab, regional and international issues. Lebanon adopted a policy of neutrality towards various Arab crises, in an effort to preserve its internal stability and confront the economic challenges it was suffering from at the time. This policy was clearly reflected in the Lebanese orientations after the events of 1958, as economic policies were linked to the general political approach, which contributed to achieving a kind of internal balance and stability, away from direct involvement in regional conflicts.
References
World War I: A war that broke out between the Central Powers, represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria, on one side, and the Allied Powers, represented by Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Portugal, and later the United States, on the other side. Germany initiated the war by attacking Russia and France in 1914. For more details, see: Omar Al-Dairawi, The First World War: A Photographic Overview, 5th ed., Beirut, 1977, pp. 25-28.
Among the prominent intellectuals from Iraq and Lebanon who contributed to the early relations between the two countries were: Ahmad Azza Al-Athami, Ibrahim Al-Tabatabai, Muhammad Jawad Al-Shibibi, Mahmoud Shukri Al-Alusi, and Ahmad Hassan Tabara. For more details, see: Encyclopedia of Arab Personalities, 1st ed., Vol. 1, Baghdad, 2000, p. 58.
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King Ghazi: Ghazi bin King Faisal bin Hussein bin Ali Al-Hashimi, born in Mecca on March 12, 1912. He joined the Iraqi Royal Military College in 1929 and graduated in 1932 with the rank of second lieutenant. In 1933, he made a decision to eliminate the Assyrian movement, which was his first political experiment. He was appointed as the companion of King Faisal I and became the King of Iraq in 1933. He died on April 4, 1939. For more details, see: Abdul Rahman Jileli, King Ghazi and His Killers: Britain, Abdul Ilah, Nuri Al-Said, Baghdad, 1993, pp. 90-97; Mir Sabri, Figures of Modern Politics in Iraq, Vol. 1, London, 1994, p. 21.
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Vichy Government: A French government that collaborated with the Nazis during World War II, ruling from 1940 to 1944. It took its name from the resort town of Vichy in southern France, which became its capital under the leadership of Marshal Philippe Pétain. Its policies aligned with the circumstances and developments of World War II. The Vichy government replaced the French Republic's motto ("Liberty, Equality, Fraternity") adopted during the French Revolution with a new slogan: ("Work, Family, Fatherland"). For more details, see: Abdul Wahab Al-Nafeesa et al., History of the Modern World 1914-1945, University of Mosul, 1981, pp. 334-339; Robert Aron – Georgette Elgey, The Vichy Regime 1940-1944, Dufour Editions, France, 1954.
Charles de Gaulle: A French general born in Lille, Nord, France, on November 22, 1890. He joined the Saint-Cyr Military School and graduated in 1911. He entered the Sandhurst Military College and graduated as a second lieutenant in the infantry. In 1925, he was appointed to Marshal Pétain's office as vice president of the Supreme War Council. On June 5, 1940, he was appointed Minister of State for National Defense in the government of Paul Reynaud. He headed the French Committee for National Liberation in June 1944, which became known as the Provisional Government of the French Republic. He served as Prime Minister from 1945 to 1949 and as President of the Fifth Republic from 1958 to 1969. He died on November 9, 1970. For more details, see: The Memoirs of General de Gaulle, translated by Khairy Hamad, Beirut, 1968; General de Gaulle, Memoirs of War - The Alarm 1940-1942, translated by Abdul Latif Sharara, 3rd ed., Beirut, 1983.
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Georges Catroux: Born on January 29, 1879, in Limoges, France. He studied military science at the Saint-Cyr Military School and participated in World War I. He served in Damascus within the French forces from 1920 to 1923, then moved to Marrakesh where he worked to suppress the Rif Rebellion led by the Moroccan fighter Abdelkrim El Khattabi. He held various military and administrative positions, and was appointed governor of Damascus under General Weygand. In 1940, he joined the Free French Forces and, alongside de Gaulle, led the French forces into Syria and Lebanon. He was appointed by de Gaulle as the High Commissioner of Free France in Lebanon and Syria. He died in Paris on December 21, 1969. For more details, see: Adnan Mohsen Dha'er and Riyad Ghanam, Dictionary of Lebanese Rulers 1842-2012, 1st ed., Dar Bilal, Beirut, 2012, p. 130.
Alfred George Naqqash: Born on May 3, 1886, in the town of Ma'ruf, northern Lebanon. He received his education at the Saint Joseph School of the Jesuit Fathers. In 1929, he was appointed as a consultant to the Council of State. He served as Prime Minister of Lebanon from April 7, 1941, to November 26, 1941. During this time, he also held the office of President of Lebanon from April 9, 1941, to March 18, 1943, and served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1953 to 1955. He passed away in Beirut on September 26, 1978. For more details, see: Walid Awad, The Honorable Presidents of Lebanon, Beirut, 1977, p. 246.
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Hamid Frangieh: Born in Zgharta, Lebanon, on August 6, 1907, into a politically and socially influential Maronite family. He completed his primary education at the "Frères" school in Tripoli. He obtained his baccalaureate in 1924 and then moved to the Jesuit College (Saint Joseph University in Beirut) to enroll in the Faculty of Law. He was first elected to the Lebanese Parliament in 1932 and was re-elected in 1934, 1943, 1947, 1951, 1953, and 1957. He passed away in 1961. For more details, see: Dhamia Rashk Jabar Al-Ghalabi, Hamid Frangieh and His Political Role in Lebanon 1907-1981, unpublished MA thesis, University of Dhi Qar, College of Education for Human Sciences, 2016.
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The Lebanese Constitutional Bloc: A party founded by Sheikh Bashara Al-Khouri in 1926, and officially named in 1932. Its key principles included maintaining Lebanon's national pact. The bloc created programs demanding government action in areas like politics, finance, economics, social issues, and education. It succeeded in bringing its leader, Al-Khouri, to the presidency in 1943. In 1953, it transformed into the Constitutional Union Party. For more details, see: Noor Fares Hussein Al-Awaily, Previous Source; George Farah, The First Lebanese, Sheikh Bashara Al-Khouri, President of Lebanon – The Various Phases Lebanon Went Through from French Occupation to His Second Term, (D-M), (D-T), pp. 11-13; Michael M. Suleiman, Political Parties in Lebanon: The Challenge of a Fragmented Political Culture, New York, 1976, pp. 250-260.
Bashara Al-Khouri: Born in Beirut in 1890 to a distinguished Lebanese family, the Al-Salih Khouri family from Rashmiya in the Shouf region. Bashara Khalil Al-Khouri completed his secondary education at Saint Joseph University in Beirut. In 1909, he traveled to Paris to study law, graduating three years later. In 1943, he was elected President of Lebanon, but was forced to resign in 1952 due to the country's deteriorating situation and administrative corruption, particularly due to leaders of the National Socialist Front like Kamal Jumblatt, Camille Chamoun, and Hamid Frangieh. He passed away in 1964. For more details, see: Adnan Iskander Antoine, Sheikh Bashara Al-Khouri and His Role in Lebanese History Until 1952, unpublished MA thesis, Institute of Arab History and Scientific Heritage, Baghdad, 2005.
The Lebanese National Bloc: One of the oldest active political parties in Lebanon, the National Bloc began as a political movement in 1936 and then as a parliamentary bloc led by Emile Eddé. Most of its members were Christians. In 1943, it became the National Bloc Party, led by Emile Eddé until his death in 1949. After his death, his son Raymond Eddé took over the party leadership. The party formed the Tripartite Alliance with the Kataeb Party and the Lebanese Nationalist Party. In 1972, the party secured 4 seats in the Lebanese Parliament. For more details, see: Noor Alaa Younis, The National Bloc and Its Role in Lebanon 1935-1949, unpublished MA thesis, University of Dhi Qar, College of Education for Human Sciences, 2015.
Emile Eddé: A Lebanese politician born in Damascus in 1884. He received his education in Beirut and France. Eddé held several positions in Lebanon, including being a member of the Representative Council of Mount Lebanon (1922-1925), then its president (1925-1928). He also served as a member of the Senate (1926-1927), a member of the Lebanese Parliament (1927-1936), and Prime Minister of Lebanon between 1929 and 1930. He passed away in 1949. For more details, see: Yasser Hamad Khalifa Dayeh Al-Mahlawi, Emile Eddé and His Political Role in Lebanon Until 1949, unpublished MA thesis, Faculty of Arts, University of Anbar, 2014; Alexander George Abi Younes, Emile Eddé (1883-1949) Founder of the Lebanese Republic, Lebanese University, Beirut, 2019.
Ghazi Faisal Al-Rawi, The Lebanese Parties’ Stance on Arab Unity from 1946-1958, unpublished MA thesis, Faculty of Education, Al-Mustansiriya University, 1981, p. 122.
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Shadi Khalil Abu Issa, Presidents of the Lebanese Republic 1926-2007: Secrets, Facts, Documents, Photos, 1st ed., Beirut, 2008, pp. 30-32.
Fathi Abbas Khalaf Al-Jubouri, Previous Source, p. 29.
Riad Al-Solh: Born in Sidon on August 17, 1893, he was elected in 1943 as a member of parliament for the Mount Lebanon district. He served as Prime Minister six times during the years (1943, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949). He was assassinated at the Amman airport in Jordan on July 16, 1951, by members of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. For more details, see: Saad Mohsen Abdul-Abidi, Riad Al-Solh and His Political Role Until 1951, unpublished MA thesis, Institute of Arab History and Scientific Heritage, Baghdad, 2001.
Yasser Hamad Khalifa Dayeh, Previous Source, p. 289; Mohamed Rajai Rayan, Previous Source, p. 116; Fathi Abbas Khalaf Al-Jubouri, Previous Source, p. 24.
Jean Hélou: A French politician born on June 26, 1885, in Paris. General de Gaulle appointed him as the Secretary General in the French Mandate in Beirut, and later as the High Commissioner, replacing General Catroux. During his tenure, the Lebanese political crisis of 1943 occurred. He passed away on May 30, 1955. For more details, see: Mohamed Radhawi Fajr Mohamed Al-Hamidiawi, The Lebanese Political Crisis of 1943 and the International Stance on It, unpublished MA thesis, Faculty of Education, University of Dhi Qar, 2010, p. 43.
Hussein Hamad Abdullah Al-Soulagh, Political Developments in Lebanon 1941-1958, unpublished MA thesis, College of Education, Ibn Rushd, University of Baghdad, 1990, p. 46.
Bushra Ibrahim Salman Al-Anzi, The Stance of Lebanese People on the Declaration of the Greater Lebanon State (1920-1946), unpublished PhD thesis, College of Education for Girls, University of Baghdad, 2017, p. 291.
Hussein Hamad Abdullah Al-Soulagh, Previous Source, p. 33.
Abdullah Hafiz: An Iraqi politician who held ministerial positions during the monarchy era in Iraq. Born in Mosul in 1895, he completed his primary, secondary, and high school studies in Mosul. He pursued his university education at the Ottoman School of Arts in Istanbul and later studied political sciences at the University of Paris, graduating in 1922. After returning to Iraq, he briefly practiced dentistry. He held various ministerial roles, including Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1942, Minister of Education, and Minister of Supply in 1946-1947. In 1949, he was reappointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in Nuri Al-Saeed’s 10th cabinet. He passed away on January 27, 1976. For more details, see: Ammar Youssef Abdullah Owaid, Mosul During the May 1941 Revolution, unpublished MA thesis, College of Education, University of Mosul, 1997, p. 95.
Fathi Abbas Khalaf Al-Jubouri, Previous Source, p. 29.
Abdul Razzaq Al-Hassani, History of Iraqi Ministries, vol. 2, Baghdad, 1988, p. 142.
Sabri Saadoun Hamada: A Lebanese politician born in 1902 in the city of Hermel, Lebanon. He came from a prominent political family, particularly in the Baalbek-Hermel region, which had a significant presence in the local politics. He was elected as a deputy for the Bekaa region in 1926 and was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior in 1946. He held the position of Speaker of the Parliament during the following periods: 1943-1946, 1947-1950, 1959-1964, 1964-1968, and 1968-1970. He passed away in 1976. For more details, see: Safaa Abdul-Sahib Salman, Sabri Hamada and His Political Role in Lebanon 1925-1943, Al-Mustansiriya University – Journal of the College of Education, Issue (2), 2019; Nawar Majid Nasser, Previous Source, p. 99.
Mohammed Rida Al-Shabibi: Mohammed Rida bin Mohammed Jawad Al-Shabibi, born in Najaf in 1888. He served as Minister of Education five times in the years (1924, 1935, 1938, 1941, 1948). He was elected as the President of the Iraqi Scientific Academy during its first term in 1948. He passed away in Baghdad in 1965. For more details, see: Ali Abdul Shnawa, Mohammed Rida Al-Shabibi and His Intellectual and Political Role until 1932, Baghdad, 1995.
The Following Names: This list includes political figures like (Sabri Hamada, Sami Al-Sulah, Abdullah Al-Yafi, Saeb Salam, Farid Al-Nakach, Habib Abu Shahla, Mohammad Baydoun, Ayyoub Thabet, Moses Darkalosian, Harasha Shamlyan, Ahmed Al-Asaad, Riyad Al-Sulah, Rashid Baydoun, Kazem Al-Khalil, Mohammad Al-Fadl, Ali Al-Abdullah, Adel Assiran, Maroun Kanaan, Nacib Gabriel, Yusuf Salem, Mahmoud Al-Aboud, Suleiman Al-Ali, Abdel Hamid Karam, Mohammad Al-Mustafa, Saadi Al-Monla, Yusuf Astafan, Hamid Frangieh, Waheeb Jajaa, Botros Khoury, Yusuf Dho, Yaakoub Al-Sarraf, Naqoula Ghosn, Ibrahim Haidar, Yusuf El-Harawi, Nacib Al-Dawood, Adeb Al-Ferzli, Henry Faraoun, Bashara Khoury, Emile Eda, Wadieh Al-Ashkar, Asaad Al-Boustani, George Zewain, Amin Al-Saad, Camille Chamoun, George Akel, Emile Lahoud, Wadieh Naeem, Majid Arslan, Jamil Talhouq, Kamal Jumblatt, Gabriel Murr, Salim Taqla, Ahmed Al-Hassani, Emile Eda, and Abdul Ghani Al-Khatib). For more details, see: Tariq Ahmad Qassem, Contemporary History of Lebanon, Beirut, 2012, p. 91.
Fadel Jassem Mansour Al-Khazali, Syrian-Lebanese Relations 1946-1963, unpublished MA thesis, College of Basic Education, Al-Mustansiriya University, 2012, p. 14.
Taha Qadri: An Iraqi diplomat born in Baalbek, Lebanon, in 1894. He completed his primary education in Baghdad and Basra. In 1910, he joined the military school in Istanbul and graduated in 1914 with the rank of second lieutenant. He began his career as an officer in the Ottoman army, participating in the Ottoman campaign on the Caucasus front. He joined the Great Arab Revolt in 1916, joining Prince Faisal bin Hussein’s camp between Aqaba and Ma'an. Prince Faisal appointed him as his military attaché during the Syrian campaign and worked alongside King Faisal I when he was the King of the Syrian Arab Kingdom (1918-1920). He also accompanied him in the peace negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Taha's work also included a diplomatic role in the Iraqi Ministry of Foreign Affairs during the 1940s, serving as a minister plenipotentiary at the Iraqi embassies in Paris, Cairo, Tehran, and Beirut. His brother, Dr. Ahmed Qadri, was the physician to King Faisal I. Taha Qadri passed away in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1986. For more details, see: Memoirs of Taha Qadri (1892-1986), Senior Military Attaché to King Faisal I, edited by Dr. Siyar Kookab Al-Jamil, 1st edition, 2018, p. 17.
M.M.N. Lebanese: Fifth Legislative Term, First Extraordinary Session, First Session, November 26, 1943.
Saleh Jaioul Al-Saray, the previous source, p.29."
Nuri Al-Said: An Iraqi politician, born in Baghdad in 1888. His father, Said Effendi, worked as an auditor in one of the Ottoman Baghdad departments. Nuri Al-Said studied at military schools and graduated from the military academy in Istanbul in 1906. He entered the War Staff School in 1911. Al-Said served as Prime Minister several times and played a key role in establishing the League of Nations and the Arab League, which he aspired to lead. For more details, refer to: Mohsen Mohammad Al-Tuwaili Al-Azi, Nuri Pasha Al-Said: From Beginning to End, 1st Edition, Beirut, 2005.
Mamdouh Al-Roussan, Source Above, p. 52.
Marcel Bando and Others, The Historical Encyclopedia of World War II, Translated from the French by Jesse Dillson, New York, 1980, p. 244.
Mohammad Shahid Mohammad Al-Omari, The Lebanese Uprising of 1952 and the International Stance Towards It, unpublished MA thesis, College of Education, University of Thi-Qar, 2013, p. 176.
Fawaz Jirjis, The Arab Regional System and the Major Powers: A Study in Arab–International Relations, Beirut, 1977, p. 77.
Kamil Shimon: A Lebanese politician, born in Deir El Qamar on April 2, 1900. He traveled with his parents to exile in Anatolia and returned to Beirut after World War I. He held many political and ministerial positions, served as ambassador to London between 1944-1947, and represented Lebanon at the United Nations from 1945 to 1947. He became President of Lebanon after the 1952 White Revolution. He passed away in 1987. For more details, see: Adday Ibrahim Majid Horan Al-Janabi, Kamil Shimon and His Political Role in Lebanon 1900-1987, unpublished MA thesis, University of Anbar, College of Arts, 2011.
Walid Mohammad Saeed Al-Athami, Nuri Al-Said and the Conflict with Nasser, 1st Edition, Baghdad, 1988, p. 34.
Kamil Shimon, My Memoirs, Vol. 1, Beirut, 1969, pp. 12-14.
Abdul Karim Qasim: Abdul Karim Qasim Muhammad Bakr Osman Al-Zubaidi, born in Baghdad in 1914. His family moved to the town of Suwayra in Wasit Province when he was six years old. He attended primary and secondary schools in Baghdad. After graduating, he worked as a teacher in Al-Shamia, then joined the military academy and graduated in 1932 as a second lieutenant. Qasim rose to the rank of brigadier general and became the commander of the 19th Brigade of the Iraqi army. He founded a secret organization known as the (Nationalist Officers), led by Qasim and Abdul Salam Arif. This group overthrew the monarchy and declared the Iraqi Republic on July 14, 1958. For more details, refer to: Imad Abdul Salam Raouf, Abdul Karim Qasim in Light of His Personal File, 2nd Edition, Beirut, 2013.
Fathi Abbas Khalaf Al-Jubouri, the previous source, pp. 66-68.
Laith Abdul Mohsen Jawad Al-Zubaidi, "The 14th July Revolution of 1958 in Iraq," Baghdad, 1979, p. 178.
Qais Fadil Mohammad Abdullah Al-Nuaimi, "Iraqi-Syrian Relations 1958-1968: A Historical Study," unpublished PhD thesis, University of Mosul, College of Education, 2005, p. 45.
Robert Gibson, "Iraqi-American Relations During Abdul Karim Qasim's Era," translated by Mustafa Naaman Ahmed, Beirut, 2011, p. 61.
Adai Ibrahim Majid Horan Al-Janabi, the previous source, p. 133.
Walid Mohammad Said Al-Athami, the previous source, p. 94; Ismail Araf, "Secrets of the July 14 Revolution and the Establishment of the Republic in Iraq," Cairo, 2012, p. 300.
Nabil Riyad Al-Husseini, "Lebanese in Kuwait," Vol. 2, Beirut, 1984, pp. 9-11.
Hamza Alyan, "Kuwait and Lebanon Between Geographers," Kuwait, 2011, p. 6.
Saad Nasif Jassim Al-Jamili, "Political Developments in Lebanon 1958-1975," unpublished Master's thesis, Higher Institute for Political and International Studies, Al-Mustansiriya University, 2004, p. 17.
Nabil Riyad Al-Husseini, the previous source, p. 18.
John Daniels, "Kuwait's Journey: Its Political, Economic, and Social Development," translated by Atiyah Bin Karim Al-Dhafiri, Kuwait, 2013, p. 34.
Munib Mahmoud Mustafa Al-Shibli: He is one of the prominent figures linked to the history of relations between Kuwait and Lebanon in the early 20th century. He was born in Lebanon in the late 19th century and stood out in Lebanese society due to his high craftsmanship skills in repairing watches, which was his main area of expertise that he brought with him to Kuwait. Al-Shibli arrived in Kuwait in 1915 and is considered one of the first Lebanese immigrants to Kuwait during that period. He brought with him technical expertise and craftsmanship that were rare at that time in the region. He began his career in Kuwait in the field of watch repair, an area that was in high demand during that period, especially as Kuwait was in a stage of growth and development, requiring skilled craftsmen in various fields, including manual and mechanical trades. Munib Al-Shibli contributed to building a historical relationship between Kuwait and Lebanon through his work. He was one of the first Lebanese to establish economic and social ties with the Kuwaiti community. Due to his expertise in watch repair, he gained a good reputation in Kuwait, opening the door for other Lebanese to migrate to Kuwait, bringing with them their skills and expertise in trade, industry, and art. Munib Al-Shibli can be considered an example of an individual’s success in transferring his skills and culture to a new environment, thus enhancing cooperation and understanding between Kuwait and Lebanon throughout his stay in Kuwait. He represents one of the first faces embodying the strong relationship between the two countries in the early 20th century. He passed away in Kuwait in 1968. For more details, see: Hamza Alyan, "Kuwaiti-Lebanese Relations 1962-2000: Shared Similarities," Kuwait, 2000, p. 77.
Bassem Alwan Hussein, "Kuwait's Foreign Policy in the Framework of the Gulf Cooperation Council Regarding Gulf Issues and the Arab Mashreq Countries 1981-1989," unpublished Master's thesis, College of Arts, University of Basra, 2018, p. 26.
Hamza Alyan, "Kuwait and Lebanon Between Geographers," p. 18; Fawaz Jirjis, the previous source, p. 44.
Nabil Riyad Al-Husseini, the previous source, p. 36.
Fathi Abbas Khalaf Al-Jubouri, the previous source, p. 73.
Hussein Hamad Abdullah Al-Sulagh, the previous source, p. 47.
Noura Said Issa, "Kuwaiti-Lebanese Relations 1961-1990: A Historical Study," unpublished Master's thesis, College of Arts, University of Baghdad, 2022, p. 15.
Bassem Alwan Hussein, the previous source, p. 101.
Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 17.
Hamza Alyan, "Kuwaiti-Lebanese Relations," p. 93.
Nawaf Bakkara, "The Shihabite Project: State Building in Lebanon 1958-1970," Beirut, 1993, p. 696.
Layla Raad, "The Political and Economic History of Lebanon 1958-1975," Lebanon, 2005, p. 92.
Jasim Mohammed Al-Jubouri, "Lebanon’s Position in the Arab League on the Palestinian Cause 1945-1948," Journal of Research in the College of Basic Education, University of Mosul, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2007, p. 197.
Hud Habib Kourani: He was a prominent Lebanese figure known for his role in supervising Kuwaiti scholarship students in Lebanon during the 1950s. Many of these students returned to Kuwait after graduation and assumed important positions in the state administration, reflecting Kourani's pivotal role in supporting and training Kuwaiti cadres during that period. Despite the importance of his role, limited information is available about Hud Habib Kourani's personal life and career. For more details, see: Nabil Riyad Al-Husseini, the previous source, p. 77.
Iman Abbas Hamza Al-Mamouri, "The Role of Camille Chamoun and the Members of the National Liberal Party in the Lebanese Parliament 1934-1987," unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Karbala, 2021, p. 25.
Kamal Jumblatt, "The Truth About the Lebanese Revolution," Beirut, 1959, p. 156.
Abdullah Al-Salem Al-Sabah: The eleventh Emir of Kuwait, born in Kuwait in 1895, he assumed the throne after the death of his cousin Sheikh Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah. He officially took power on February 25, 1950, during his reign, Kuwait gained its independence. He contributed to the development of his country, elevating its status and benefiting from oil revenues. He passed away in 1965. For more details, see: Simon C. Smith, "Kuwait Under Abdullah Al-Salem 1950 – 1965," translated by Badr Nasser Al-Mutairi, 1st edition, Lebanon, 2018.
Hamza Alyan, "Kuwaiti-Lebanese Relations," p. 93.
Layla Raad, the previous source, p. 123; Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 14.
Simon C. Smith, the previous source, p. 27.
Abbas Abu Saleh, "The Lebanese Crisis of 1958 in Light of Documents Revealed for the First Time," Beirut, 1998, p. 145.
Salahuddin Ismail Al-Sheikhly, "Iraqi-Egyptian Relations 1952-1961," unpublished Master’s thesis, College of Law and Politics, University of Baghdad, 1980, p. 223.
The Hashemite Arab Union: A non-integrative confederation established on February 14, 1958, between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. It was officially named the Hashemite Arab Union. The union included common foreign policy, diplomatic representation, a unified army, the removal of customs barriers, the unification of educational curricula, and the determination of the structure of the institutions that would administer the union. Additionally, the King of Iraq would be the president of the union, and in his absence, for any reason, the King of Jordan would be the president. The union also kept the door open for any Arab country that wished to join. It was considered a response to the declaration of the United Arab Republic. For more details, see: Abdul Wahab Al-Kayali, Kamil Al-Zuhairi, "The Political Encyclopedia," 1st edition, Beirut, 1974, p. 370.
Othman Fathi Saleh Hamdi, "Iraqi-Jordanian Relations 1958-1968," unpublished Master’s thesis, College of Education, University of Mosul, 2001, p. 62.
Bashar Fathi Al-Akidi, "Iraq's Position on Arab Issues in the United Nations 1945-1968," 1st edition, Jordan, 2015, p. 162.
Hassan Ali Al-Ibrahimi, "Kuwait (A Political Study)," Beirut, 1972, p. 144.
Ismail Araf, the previous source, p. 310.
Mohammad Jaafar Abdul Razzaq Al-Shadidi, "Iraqi-Kuwaiti Relations in the Context of Partition 1945-1963," unpublished Master’s thesis, College of Arts, University of Baghdad, 1990, p. 104.
Majid Khaddouri, "Republican Iraq," 1st edition, Beirut, 1974, p. 227.
Qais Fadel Mohammad Abdullah Al-Naimi, the previous source, pp. 26-27; Mohammad Jaafar Abdul Razzaq Al-Shadidi, the previous source, p. 144.
Ahmed Fares Abdul Munim, "The Arab League 1945-1985," Beirut, 1986, p. 78.
Laith Abdul Mohsen, the previous source, p. 198.
Martha Dukas, "The Kuwait Crisis, Kuwaiti-Iraqi Relations 1961-1963," Beirut, 1973, p. 21.
Simon C. Smith, the previous source, p. 20.
A secret agreement signed by Sheikh Mubarak Al-Sabah with the British political resident in the Arabian Gulf, Major Meade, on January 23, 1899. The agreement included many conditions, the most prominent of which was that the Sheikh and his successors could not cede or lease any part of Kuwaiti land to any foreign state without consulting Britain. In return, Britain promised to protect him and his family from the Ottoman authorities. For more details, see: Hassan Suleiman Mahmoud, "Kuwait: Its Past and Present," Al-Maktaba Al-Ahliya, 1968, p. 180.
William Luce: A British politician born in the UK in 1907, who served as the Political Resident in the Arabian Gulf from 1961-1966, and later became the British Special Representative for Gulf Affairs until 1972. He passed away in 1977. For more details, see: Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 35.
Lotfi Jaafar Faraj, "King Ghazi and His Role in Iraq’s Internal and External Politics 1933-1939," Baghdad, 1987, p. 228; Majid Khaddouri, the previous source, p. 331.
The year 1961 was not the first demand for Kuwait by the Iraqi government. There had been several earlier demands to annex Kuwait to Iraq, the first of which occurred in 1933 by Yassin Al-Hashimi, the leader of the National Brotherhood Party, when the party's newspaper published an article titled "Unification of Iraq and Kuwait." The second demand was during the reign of King Ghazi, where the Iraqi government officially declared through its radio station, "Radio Qasr Al-Zuhur," its call for the annexation of Kuwait. For more details, see: Mustafa Abdul Qader Al-Najjar, "The Political History of Iraq's Relations with the Arabian Gulf," Iraq, (undated), p. 239.
The Arab League: An Arab regional organization established in 1945 with its headquarters in Cairo. It initially consisted of seven Arab countries: Iraq, Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Lebanon, and East Jordan. Its charter aims to coordinate between member states in economic, commercial, and communication affairs. For more details, see: Ahmed Fares Abdul Munim, "The Arab League 1945-1985: A Historical and Political Study," Beirut, 1986.
Suhail Tabban, "A Few Prominent Figures of the Arabian Peninsula," Riyadh, 2004, p. 17.
Majid Khaddouri, the previous source, p. 227.
Mohammad Nayef Awad Al-Anzi, "The History of Political Relations Between Kuwait and Iraq from 1961-1983," Kuwait, 2001, pp. 50-54.
Ali Shait Mahmoud, "Iraq and Arab Politics 1963-1968," Master’s Thesis (unpublished), College of Arts, University of Mosul, 2009, p. 35.
Mohammad Nayef Awad Al-Anzi, the previous source, pp. 53-54; Qais Fadel Mohammad Abdullah Al-Naimi, the previous source, pp. 73-74.
Joseph Mughayzel, "Lebanon and the Arab Cause," Beirut, 1959, p. 61; Noura Said Issa, the previous source, pp. 20-21.
Quoted from: Al-Nahar Beirut Newspaper, Issue (5444), June 28, 1961.
Abdullah Yaqub Bashara, "Kuwait's Diplomatic Wars 1961-1963," 2nd Edition, Kuwait, 2019, p. 81; Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 35.
Mohammad Nayef Awad Al-Anzi, the previous source, p. 56.
Majid Khaddouri, the previous source, pp. 331-332; Qais Fadel Mohammad Abdullah Al-Naimi, the previous source, pp. 27-28.
Bashar Fathi Al-Akidi, "Iraq's Position on Arab Issues in the United Nations: A Historical Study, 1945–1968," 1st Edition, Jordan, 2015, p. 167.
Saeb Salam: A Lebanese politician and businessman, born on January 17, 1905, in the Al-Musaytaba area. His father was keen on his education and enrolled him in elementary school early. In 1916, he completed his elementary studies at the (Al-Maqasid School). He completed his intermediate studies in 1918-1919. He was first elected as a Member of Parliament in 1943, then became the Minister of the Interior in 1936, and later Prime Minister (1952-1953). He resigned from the ministry in 1956 and became a leader of the opposition to President Camille Chamoun. He passed away in 2000. For more details, refer to Fadhil Haif Kadhim Gharbi Al-Sultani, "Saeb Salam and His Political Role in Lebanon Until 2000," Master’s Thesis (unpublished), College of Humanities Education, University of Babylon, 2014.
Philippe Taqla: A Lebanese politician born in 1915 in Lebanon. He studied at the Frères School in Jounieh, then at the Ain Toura Institute, and later studied law at Saint Joseph University, from which he graduated in 1935. He worked in the office of lawyer Camille Edde. In 1937, he was appointed Minister of Public Works in the government of President Khayr al-Din al-Ahdab. He was later appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of Saeb Salam in 1961. He passed away in 2006. For more details, refer to Adnan Zaher and Riyad Ghanam, "Dictionary of Lebanon's Rulers and Presidents 1840-2006," 1st Edition, Beirut, 2012, p. 80.
Bashar Fathi Al-Akidi, the previous source, p. 188; Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 25.
Shukri Nasrallah, "Memoirs Before Their Time," Al-Maktaba Publishing and Distribution Company, Beirut, 1st Edition, 2001, p. 13.
Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 26.
Fahd Fahd Al-Dosari, "Iraqi-Kuwaiti Crises 1922-1961," 1st Edition, Kuwait, 2013, pp. 22-25.
Joseph Mughayzel, "Lebanon and the Arab Cause," Beirut, 1959, p. 61.
M. M. N. Lebanese, "The Tenth Legislative Period, the Second Extraordinary Session, the Minutes of the First Session held on February 10, 1961."
Joseph Abu Khater: A Lebanese diplomat, born in Zahleh in 1906. He studied law at Saint Joseph University. He practiced law for a while, then joined the diplomatic corps in 1946, where he served as Lebanon's ambassador to Italy, Austria, and Mexico, and then as Lebanon's ambassador to the United Arab Republic from 1958-1966. He became Lebanon's permanent representative to the Arab League and passed away in 1989. For more details, refer to Adnan Zaher and Riyad Ghanam, the previous source, p. 15.
Joseph Mughayzel, "Lebanon and the Arab Cause," Beirut, 1959, p. 91.
Qutaybah Ali Jassim, "Iraqi-Lebanese Political Relations 1958-1968," Unpublished PhD Thesis, College of Arts, Al-Anbar University, 2013, p. 238.
Abdel Khalek Hassouna: An Egyptian politician, born on November 28, 1898, in Cairo. He obtained a Master’s degree in economics and political science from the University of Cambridge in England in 1925. He held various government positions in Egypt and was a member of the first diplomatic mission of the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He also held diplomatic positions in embassies in Berlin, Prague, Brussels, and Rome. He was appointed Minister of Social Affairs in the transitional government of Hussein Serry from 1949-1950, and later served as Minister of Education and Foreign Affairs in the governments of Ali Maher and Al-Hilali. He was elected as the second Secretary-General of the Arab League in 1952 and continued in this position until 1972. He passed away in 1992. For more details, refer to Nizar Abada – Mohammad Riyad Al-Malih, "Completion of Prominent Figures," 1st Edition, Beirut, 1999, p. 269.
Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 29.
Abdullah Zalta, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961," 2nd Edition, Kuwait, 1994, p. 229.
Abdul Rahim Zwayed Al-Hadithi and Qutaybah Ali Jassim Al-Sabihi, "The Iraqi-Kuwaiti Disputes and Their Impact on Iraqi-Lebanese Relations 1961-1963," Al-Anbar University Journal of Human Sciences, Issue (1), Volume 1, 2013, p. 77.
Alaa Hussein Ghadhan, "Lebanon's Position on the 1961 Iraqi-Kuwaiti Crisis," Al-Hadatha Magazine, 25th Year, Issue (195), 2018, p. 55.
The same source, p. 57.
Mohammad Abdullah Khalid Al-Abd Al-Qader, "The Iraqi-Kuwaiti Border," 1st Edition, Kuwait, 2000, pp. 37-40.
Nafeh Al-Hassan, "Interests and Competition of International and Regional Powers in the Arabian Gulf," Afaq Magazine, Future Academy for Creative Thinking, www.aafaq.org/fact3/2.htm, 07/09/1423, p. 19.
Hashim Jawad: An Iraqi politician born in Baghdad in 1911. He obtained a Bachelor’s degree in Sciences from the American University of Beirut in 1932 and then studied economics and politics at the University of London. He worked as a secondary school teacher in Iraq and was close to the National Democratic Party in Iraq. He held several political and ministerial positions, including being appointed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1934 and serving as the chargé d'affaires in London from 1934-1936. After the 1958 revolution, he became Iraq’s representative to the United Nations and later served as Minister of Foreign Affairs until February 9, 1963. He was assassinated in Beirut in 1972. For more details, refer to Ali Ghafil Hassan, "Hashim Jawad and His Intellectual and Political Role in Iraq 1911–1972," Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Thi Qar – College of Education, 2013.
Adnan Ahmed Saloum and Osama Murtada, "Independent Horizons of Iraqi-Kuwaiti Relations Post-April 2003," Beirut, 2011, p. 22; Qabil Mohsen Al-Rakabi, the previous source, p. 55.
Alaa Hussein Ghadhan, the previous source, p. 160.
Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 31.
Alaa Hussein Ghadhan, the previous source, p. 160.
Martha Dukes, the previous source, p. 58.
M.M.N. Al-Lubnani, "The Tenth Legislative Term, First Extraordinary Session, Minutes of the Second Session, August 22, 1961."
Nasser Al-Hani: An Iraqi politician born in 1920 in Ana. He studied at Baghdad University, Cairo, and London, and obtained a Ph.D. in literary criticism from the University of London. He held various educational and diplomatic positions, including at Baghdad University and the University of London. He then worked as the Iraqi diplomatic attaché in Washington until 1959 and was later appointed as Iraq's ambassador to Lebanon. He played a role in the July 17, 1968, coup. He was assassinated on October 10, 1968. For more details, refer to Hassan Latif Al-Zubaidi, "The Iraqi Political Encyclopedia," Beirut, 2013, pp. 120-121.
Abdul Rahim Zwayed Al-Hadithi and Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, pp. 244-245.
Al-Nahar Newspaper (Beirut), August 7, 1961.
Reda Helal, "The Struggle over Kuwait: Security and Revolution Issues," Beirut, 1991, p. 30.
Al-Nahar Newspaper (Beirut), September 11-12, 1961.
Reda Helal, the previous source, p. 43; Martha Dukes, the previous source, p. 77.
Gamal Abdel Nasser: Egyptian military officer and politician, born in the Bakus district of Alexandria in 1918. He studied at Al-Attarin Primary School in Alexandria. He served as the second president of the Arab Republic of Egypt from 1956 until his death in 1970. Nasser was a leader of the Arab Socialist Union, advocating for Arab unity. He was one of the leaders of the July 23 Revolution that overthrew King Farouk and transformed Egypt into a presidential republic. He also served as the Vice Prime Minister in the new government. He passed away in 1970. For more details, refer to Shawqi Abdel Nasser, "The Revolution of Abdel Nasser," Cyprus, 2011, p. 205.
Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 111.
Reda Helal, the previous source, p. 68; Hassan Latif Al-Zubaidi, the previous source, p. 155.
Hadi Al-Jaoushli, "Leader Abdel Karim Qassem and His Appointment with History," Lebanon, 2011, p. 132.
Shawqi Abdel Nasser, the previous source, p. 211.
Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 114; Abdullah Zalta, the previous source, p. 122.
Hadi Al-Jaoushli, the previous source, p. 139; Fadel Haif Kadhim Gharebi Al-Sultani, the previous source, p. 167.
Abd Al-Rahim Zuweid Al-Hadithi and Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 242; Abdullah Zalta, the previous source, p. 122.
Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 34.
Shawqi Abdel Nasser, the previous source, p. 226.
Hassan Latif Al-Zubaidi, the previous source, p. 177-178.
Al-Hayat Newspaper, Lebanon, Issue 4922, May 4, 1962; Alaa Hussein Ghadhan, the previous source, p. 163.
Ali Ghafil Hassan, the previous source, p. 178.
Adnan Ahmed Saloom and Osama Murtada, the previous source, p. 234.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Tenth Legislative Term, Second Extraordinary Session, Session Minutes, January 9, 1962.
Al-Jumhuriya Newspaper, Iraq, Issue 289, May 22, 1962; Abdullah Zalta, the previous source, p. 133.
Al-Nahar Newspaper (Beirut), February 11, 1962.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Eleventh Legislative Term, Third Extraordinary Session, Fifth Session Minutes, May 3, 1962.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Twelfth Legislative Term, Fourth Extraordinary Session, Sixth Session Minutes, August 10, 1962.
Hadi Al-Jawshli, the previous source, p. 139; Leila Raad, The Political and Economic History of Lebanon 1958-1975, Beirut, 2005, p. 202.
Khalil Ibrahim Hussein, The Fall of Abdel Karim Qasim, Beirut, 1989, p. 282; Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 117.
Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 41; Abdullah Zalta, the previous source, p. 166.
Quoted from: Al-Nahar Newspaper (Beirut), September 10, 1962.
Najib Al-Saigh, From the Papers of Najib Al-Saigh in the Monarchy and Republic Eras 1947-1963, Baghdad, 1990, p. 15; Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 118.
Rashid Karami: Lebanese politician, born in Tripoli in 1921, served as Prime Minister eight times, the first being in 1955 and the last in 1984. He was assassinated in 1987 following the bombing of a military helicopter in which he was traveling. For more details, see: Adnan Zaher and Riyad Ghannam, The Dictionary of Lebanese Leaders, the previous source, p. 94.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Twelfth Legislative Term, Second Extraordinary Session, Third Session Minutes, August 19, 1962.
Musa Ibrahim, The Modern and Contemporary History of Lebanon from the Emirate Era to the Doha Agreement, 1st edition, Beirut, 2011, p. 182.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Twelfth Legislative Term, Third Extraordinary Session, Fourth Session Minutes, August 27, 1962.
Al-Nahar Newspaper (Beirut), August 29, 1962.
Nawaf Bakara, The End of the State Building Project in Lebanon 1958-1970, Beirut, 1993, p. 146; Ahmed Fares Abdul Moneim, the previous source, p. 78; Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 118.
Musa Ibrahim, the previous source, p. 122; Martha Doukas, the previous source, p. 92.
Mytham Majid Abdul Jabouri and Imad Jassim Hassan, The Arab Stance on the 1961 Iraqi-Kuwaiti Crisis, Journal of the College of Education, Issue 1, Volume 5, 2018, p. 44.
M.M.N. Lebanese, Twelfth Legislative Term, Third Extraordinary Session, Ninth Session Minutes, November 11, 1962.
Hassan Latif Al-Zubaidi, the previous source, p. 167.
Roger Jashan and Hassan Al-Awaini, Fifty Years of Lebanon and the Middle East History 1920-1970, Translated by George Abi Saleh, Beirut, 2000, p. 180.
Mohammad Abdullah Khalid Al-Abd Al-Qadir, the previous source, p. 49; Bashar Fathi Al-Akidi, the previous source, p. 122.
Falah Fahd Al-Dosari, The Iraqi-Kuwaiti Crises 1922-1961, 1st edition, Kuwait, 2013, p. 19.
John Campbell, The Middle East, New York, 1976, p. 266.
Damiya Rashk Jabar Al-Galabi, the previous source, p. 189.
Hasib Al-Abdullah: A Lebanese politician born in Al-Khayam in 1915. He held various positions in the diplomatic service, including Director of Economic Affairs in the Lebanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and later became Lebanon's Ambassador to Abu Dhabi and Kuwait. He also held several diplomatic and administrative positions both abroad and in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He was assassinated in 1979. For more details, see: Adel Mohammed Abdel Ghani, Ambassadors of the State of Kuwait 1961-2002, Kuwait, 2003, p. 66.
Hamza Aliyan, the previous source, p. 18.
Adel Mohammed Abdel Ghani, the previous source, p. 78.
Falah Fahd Al-Dosari, the previous source, p. 45; Mytham Majid Abdul Jabouri and Imad Jassim Hassan, the previous source, p. 34.
Mohammad Abdullah Khalid Al-Abd Al-Qadir, the previous source, p. 67; Hamza Aliyan, the previous source, p. 27.
Roger Jashan and Hassan Al-Awaini, the previous source, p. 193.
Qutaybah Ali Jassim, the previous source, p. 119; Noura Said Issa, the previous source, p. 45.
Mohammad Nayef Awad Al-Anzi, the previous source, p. 53.
Brian Robert Gibson, Iraqi-American Relations During the Era of Abdul Karim Qasim, 1st ed., Iraq, 1996, p. 96.
Abdul Salam Arif: A military officer born in Baghdad on March 21, 1921, from a family involved in the textile trade, originating from the Khan Dhari area, one of the suburbs of Fallujah. He joined the military academy, graduating in 1941 with the rank of second lieutenant. He participated in the May 1941 Revolution and the 1948 Palestine War. After returning from Palestine, he became a member of the general leadership of the armed forces and joined the Nationalist Free Officers Movement, which played a key role in the 1958 overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy. Arif served as President of the Republic of Iraq from 1963 to 1966. He died on April 13, 1966. For more details, see: Ahmed Fawzi, Abdul Salam Muhammad Arif: His Biography, Trial, and Death, 1st ed., n.d., Baghdad, 1989.
Reda Helal, the previous source, p. 22.
Abdul Salam Arif, Memoirs of the Late President Abdul Salam Arif, 1st ed., Baghdad, 1967, p. 106.
Asmaa Azri, Border Disputes in the Arabian Gulf Region: The Iraqi-Kuwaiti Dispute (1979-1991) as a Case Study, Master's Thesis, College of Humanities, Boudiaf University
